IoT Sensors An Exploration of Sensors for Internet of Things (Vinod Kumar Khanna) (Z-Library)

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Vinod Kumar Khanna is an independent researcher from Chandigarh, India. He received a his Ph.D in physics from Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India, in 1988. He is a Retired Chief Scientist and Head of MEMS & Microsensors Group, at the CSIR – Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani, India, and a Professor with the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, India. He is a former Emeritus Scientist, CSIR, and Emeritus Professor, AcSIR. He has worked at CSIR-CEERI for more than 37 years on the design, fabrication, and char- acterization of power semiconductor devices and micro-/nanoelectronic sensors. He has authored 20 books and 6 chapters in edited books. He has authored/coauthored 194 research papers in refereed journals and conference proceedings. He also has five patents to his name. This book introduces the basics of the Internet of Things (IoT) and explores the foundational role of sensors in IoT applications. The IoT is a network of devices and objects: sensors, actuators, hard- ware, software, human beings, domestic appliances, health monitoring equipment, and other things connected to the internet, which is designed to operate in a coordinated fashion to receive, process, and interpret signals and take appropriate action. It provides a seamless real- time interface between the physical and digital worlds by integrating sensors with networking, computation, and actuation facilities. This book sketches a perspective of the IoT with sensors as the focus of attention. Diverse applications of the IoT that are destined to make an impact on our everyday lives in the near future are discussed. It presents a comprehensive overview of the most recent sensor technologies used in the IoT to keep the reader abreast of the current advances at the frontiers of knowledge. The book will cater to student and professional audiences, and will be useful for postgraduate and Ph.D. students studying physics, engineering, and computer science as well as researchers, engi- neers, and industrial workers engaged in this fast- progressing field. Key Features: • Explains the basic concepts and important terms of ‘Internet of Things’ in simple language • Provides an up- to- date coverage of the key sensors used in IoT applications • Explores IoT applications in smart cities, smart agriculture, smart factories, and many more IoT Sensors

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Series in Sensors Series Editors: Barry Jones and Haiying Huang Other recent books in the series: Electrical Impedance: Principles, Measurement, and Applications Luca Callegaro Semiconductor X-Ray Detectors B. G. Lowe, R. A. Sareen Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive, and Magnetic Sensor Technologies Winncy Y. Du Sensors for Safety and Process Control in Hydrogen Technologies Thomas Hübert, Lois Boon-Brett, William Buttner Biosensors and Molecular Technologies for Cancer Diagnostics Keith E. Herold, Avraham Rasooly Compound Semiconductor Radiation Detectors Alan Owens A Hands-On Course in Sensors Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi Volker Ziemann Radiation Sensors with 3D Electrodes Cinzia Da Vià, Gian-Franco Dalla Betta, Sherwood Parker Semiconductor Radiation Detectors Alan Owens Advanced Chromatic Monitoring Gordon R. Jones, Joseph W. Spencer Nanosensors: Physical, Chemical, and Biological, 2nd Edition Vinod Kumar Khana Multi-Component Torque Sensing Systems Qiaokang Liang Ultra Fast Silicon Detectors: Design, Tests, and Performances Marco Ferrero, Roberta Arcidiacono, Marco Mandurrino, Valentina Sola, Nicolò Cartiglia A Hands-On Course in Sensors Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi, Second Edition Volker Ziemann Multifunctional Sensors: Design, Construction, Methodology and Uses Bansari Deb Majumder and Joyanta Kumar Roy IoT Sensors: An Exploration of Sensors for Internet of Things Vinod Kumar Khanna

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IoT Sensors An Exploration of Sensors for Internet of Things Vinod Kumar Khanna

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Designed cover image: © Shutterstock First edition published 2025 by CRC Press 2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC © 2025 Vinod Kumar Khanna This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. While all reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, neither the author[s] nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publishers wish to make clear that any views or opinions expressed in this book by individual editors, authors or contributors are personal to them and do not necessarily reflect the views/opinions of the publish- ers. The information or guidance contained in this book is intended for use by medical, scientific or health-care professionals and is provided strictly as a supplement to the medical or other professional’s own judgement, their knowledge of the patient’s medical history, relevant manufacturer’s instructions and the appropriate best practice guidelines. Because of the rapid advances in medi- cal science, any information or advice on dosages, procedures or diagnoses should be independently verified. The reader is strongly urged to consult the relevant national drug formulary and the drug companies’ and device or material manufacturers’ printed instructions, and their websites, before administering or utilizing any of the drugs, devices or materials mentioned in this book. This book does not indicate whether a particular treatment is appropriate or suitable for a particular individual. Ultimately it is the sole responsibility of the medical professional to make his or her own professional judgements, so as to advise and treat patients appropriately. The authors and publishers have also attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, micro- filming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www. copyright. com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identifica- tion and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Khanna, Vinod Kumar, 1952- author. Title: IoT sensors : an exploration of sensors for Internet of Things / Vinod Kumar Khanna. Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2024. | Series: Series in sensors | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: "This book will introduce the basics of internet of things (IoT), and bring out the foundational role of sensors in internet-of-things applications. Internet of things is a network of devices and objects: sensors, actuators, hardware, software, human beings, domestic appliances, health monitoring equipment, and other things connected to the internet, which is designed to operate in a coordinated fashion to receive, process and interpret signals and take appropriate action. "-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2024022105 | ISBN 9781032447803 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032449029 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003374442 (ebk) Subjects: LCSH: Internet of things. | Intelligent sensors. Classification: LCC TK5105.8857 .K43 2024 | DDC 004.67/8--dc23/eng/20241009 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024022105 ISBN: 978-1-032-44780-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-44902-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-37444-2 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003374442 Typeset in Times by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)

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Dedication To my parents Late Shri Amarnath Khanna and Shrimati Pushpa Khanna Whose blessings always inspire me in all the ways To my grandson Hansh, daughter Aloka, and wife Amita For the happy moments in life that brighten my days And elevate the spirits high Filling life with the rainbow colors of the sky.

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vii Contents About the Author ............................................................................................................................xvii About the Book ...............................................................................................................................xix Preface .............................................................................................................................................xxi Acknowledgments .........................................................................................................................xxiii Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Chemical Symbols ......................................................................xxiv Mathematical Notation ................................................................................................................xxxiv Greek Symbols ...........................................................................................................................xxxvii Chapter 1 IoT Architecture ...........................................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................1 1.2 Internet of Things (IoT) .....................................................................................1 1.3 Data Network Terminology ...............................................................................2 1.4 Open-System Interconnection Model ................................................................3 1.5 The TCP/IP Model Used by the Modern Internet .............................................4 1.6 Three-, Four, Five-, and Seven-Layer IoT Architectures ...................................5 1.6.1 Three-Layer IoT Architecture ..............................................................6 1.6.2 Four-Layer IoT Architecture ................................................................6 1.6.3 Five-Layer IoT Architecture .................................................................7 1.6.4 Seven-Layer IoT Architecture ..............................................................8 1.7 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter .......................9 References ....................................................................................................................9 Chapter 2 IoT Protocols and Platforms .......................................................................................10 2.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................10 2.2 IoT Protocols ...................................................................................................10 2.3 Network Protocols ...........................................................................................10 2.3.1 High Data Rate, Close-Proximity Communication Protocol: WI-FI ..................................................................................10 2.3.2 Low Data Rate, Low Power, Close-Proximity Communication Protocols .............................................................................................11 2.4 High Data Rate, Low Power, Long-Range Communication Protocol: LoRaWAN........................................................................................16 2.5 Data Protocols .................................................................................................16 2.5.1 MQTT .................................................................................................16 2.5.2 CoAP ..................................................................................................16 2.5.3 AMQP ................................................................................................17 2.5.4 DDS ....................................................................................................18 2.5.5 HTTP ..................................................................................................18 2.5.6 HTTPS ................................................................................................19 2.5.7 WebSocket ..........................................................................................21 2.6 IoT Platforms ...................................................................................................22 2.6.1 Google Cloud Platform ......................................................................22 2.6.2 IBM Watson ........................................................................................22 2.6.3 Amazon AWS IoT Core......................................................................22 2.6.4 Microsoft Azure IoT Hub ...................................................................23

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viii Contents 2.6.5 Oracle Internet of Things Cloud Service ............................................23 2.6.6 ThingWorx Industrial IoT Solutions Platform ...................................24 2.6.7 Salesforce IoT Cloud ..........................................................................24 2.6.8 Particle ................................................................................................25 2.6.9 IRI Voracity ........................................................................................25 2.6.10 Blynk ..................................................................................................25 2.6.11 Cisco IoT ............................................................................................26 2.6.12 Bosch IoT Platform ............................................................................26 2.6.13 Brainbean Apps ..................................................................................26 2.7 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter .....................26 References ..................................................................................................................26 Chapter 3 IoT Sensors for Smart Homes and Offices .................................................................28 3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................28 3.2 Smart Home .....................................................................................................28 3.3 Indoor/Outdoor Video and Audio Surveillance Systems, and Security Devices ............................................................................................................28 3.3.1 CCTV Audio Security Cameras .........................................................28 3.3.2 Helping the Homeowner to Watch and Talk with Any Visitor: Video Doorbell ...................................................................................29 3.3.3 Detecting Human or Domestic Pet Movement in Home: Motion Sensor ....................................................................................30 3.3.4 Notifying the Homeowner about the Opening or Closing of Doors and Windows: Door/Window Contact and Glass Break Sensors ...............................................................................................30 3.3.5 Giving the Homeowner Remote Access to the Door Lock: Smart Lock .........................................................................................30 3.3.6 Opening and Closing the Garage Gate from any Remote Place: Smart Garage Control ..............................................................32 3.4 Ambient Light Sensors ....................................................................................32 3.4.1 Photoresistor .......................................................................................32 3.4.2 Photodiode ..........................................................................................33 3.4.3 Phototransistor ....................................................................................34 3.5 Image Sensors ..................................................................................................36 3.5.1 CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) Image Sensor ...................................37 3.5.2 CMOS Image Sensor ..........................................................................42 3.6 Sound Sensors .................................................................................................44 3.6.1 Carbon Granules Microphone ............................................................44 3.6.2 Moving Coil Microphone ...................................................................45 3.6.3 Ribbon Microphone ............................................................................45 3.6.4 Condenser Microphone ......................................................................47 3.6.5 Electret Microphone ...........................................................................47 3.6.6 MEMS Microphone ............................................................................48 3.7 Speakers ...........................................................................................................48 3.7.1 Electrodynamic Speaker .....................................................................48 3.7.2 Electrostatic Speaker ..........................................................................50 3.7.3 Magnetostatic Speaker .......................................................................50 3.7.4 Speaker Frequency Ranges ................................................................51 3.8 IR Sensors ........................................................................................................52 3.8.1 IR Photodiode .....................................................................................52 3.8.2 IR Thermopile Sensor Array ..............................................................54

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Contents ix 3.8.3 Pyroelectric Sensor and Human/Pet Motion Detection Circuit..........54 3.9 Maintaining A Comfortable Home Ambience .................................................54 3.9.1 Room Humidity and Temperature Monitoring: Humidity and Temperature Sensors ....................................................................54 3.9.2 Allowing Home Owners to Program the Temperature Settings of their HVAC System from a Remote Location: Smart thermostat .........59 3.10 Fire Safety and Poisonous CO Gas Detection .................................................60 3.10.1 Detection of Fire: Smoke/Fire Detector .............................................60 3.10.2 Detection of Carbon Monoxide: CO Gas Sensor ...............................60 3.11 Domestic Water Supply Metering and Water Leakage Prevention ..................64 3.11.1 Water Consumption Billing: Electronic Water Meter ........................64 3.11.2 Alerting about Any Water Leakage: Water Leak Sensor ....................65 3.12 Helping to Track Down Lost Items: Smart Tag ...............................................65 3.13 Detecting Desk Occupancy to Monitor Employee Activity in Office: Desk Occupancy Sensor ..................................................................................65 3.14 Counting the Number of Visitors in an Office: Visitor Counter Sensor ..........65 3.15 Intelligent Home Lighting ...............................................................................66 3.15.1 Smart Switches and Bulbs ..................................................................66 3.15.2 Occupancy Sensors .............................................................................66 3.16 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter .....................69 References ..................................................................................................................69 Chapter 4 IoT Sensors for Factory Automation-I: Tracking Components, Gaps, Alignments; Sticker Labelling; Proximity and Position Detection ............................71 4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................71 4.2 Smart Factory ..................................................................................................71 4.3 Automated Tracking of Manufacturing Components and Materials in the Warehouse: RFID, NFC Tags ................................................................72 4.3.1 RFID Tagging .....................................................................................72 4.3.2 NFC Tagging ......................................................................................74 4.4 Tracking Gaps and Alignments Between Moving Components in Production Lines: Magnetic Field Sensors ......................................................76 4.4.1 The Hall-Effect Sensor .......................................................................76 4.4.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance Sensor ..............................................77 4.4.3 Magnetic Tunnel Junction (MTJ) Sensor ...........................................78 4.5 Automatic Application of Sticker Labels by Moving Magnet-Attached Machine Components, and Labeling Machines: Hall-Effect and Label Sensors .............................................................................................................81 4.5.1 Hall-Effect Sensors .............................................................................81 4.5.2 Label Sensors .....................................................................................81 4.6 Picking and Placement of Components Using Machines: Proximity Sensors ............................................................................................83 4.6.1 Capacitive Proximity Sensor ..............................................................83 4.6.2 Inductive Proximity Sensor ................................................................83 4.6.3 Magnetic Proximity Sensor ................................................................85 4.6.4 Optical and Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors .........................................86 4.7 Determining the Accurate Position of Machine Component or Workpiece for Automatically Responding or Activating Alarms: Position Sensors .............................................................................................................89 4.7.1 Difference Between the Position Sensor and the Proximity Sensor, and its Use in the Industrial Process ......................................89

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x Contents 4.7.2 Resistive or Potentiometric Position Sensor .......................................89 4.7.3 Capacitive Position Sensor .................................................................90 4.7.4 Linear or Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT or RVDT) Position Sensor .....................................................91 4.7.5 Eddy-Current-Based Position Sensor .................................................92 4.7.6 Magnetostrictive Position Sensor .......................................................93 4.7.7 Hall-Effect-Based Position Sensor .....................................................94 4.7.8 Optical Position Sensor ......................................................................96 4.7.9 Ultrasonic Position Sensor .................................................................98 4.8 Detecting Vibrations and Angular Tilts in Moving Parts, Machines and Workshop Structures: MEMS Accelerometers .......................................100 4.8.1 Principle and Types of Accelerometers ............................................100 4.8.2 Piezoresistive Accelerometer ............................................................100 4.8.3 Capacitive Accelerometer .................................................................102 4.8.4 Piezoelectric Accelerometer .............................................................102 4.8.5 MEMS Gyroscope ............................................................................105 4.9 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter ...................108 References ................................................................................................................109 Chapter 5 IoT Sensors for Factory Automation-II: Temperature, Pressure, Vacuum, Force, Fluid Flow, and Level Measurements ............................................110 5.1 Introduction to Critical Process Control Parameters .....................................110 5.2 Prevention of Machine Overheating to Reduce Downtime and Maintaining Correct Temperatures in Industries Demanding Critical Temperature Control Viz., Food, Medical, Pharmaceutical, Petrochemical, and Semiconductor Chip Manufacturing: Temperature Sensors ...........................................................................................................110 5.2.1 Thermocouples .................................................................................110 5.2.2 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) ......................................113 5.2.3 Thermistors .......................................................................................116 5.2.4 Semiconductor Diode Temperature Sensors ....................................118 5.2.5 Thermostats ......................................................................................121 5.3 Gas Composition Monitoring in Welding Environments, e.g., Welding of Ti: Oxygen, Humidity and Temperature Sensors........................122 5.4 Measuring Fluid Pressure in Pipelines to Find any Irregularities Alerting for Maintenance and Repair: MEMS Pressure Sensors ..................122 5.4.1 Types of Pressure Sensors ................................................................122 5.4.2 Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors ........................................................123 5.4.3 Capacitive Pressure Sensors .............................................................126 5.5 Measuring Vacuum Pressure in Vacuum System-Based Machines: Vacuum Sensors and Gauges .........................................................................127 5.5.1 Vacuum Sensor .................................................................................127 5.5.2 Mechanical Gauges ..........................................................................127 5.5.3 Thermal Conductivity Gauges ..........................................................132 5.6 Measuring Compressive/Stretching Forces or Rate of Change of an Applied Force: Force Sensors ........................................................................137 5.6.1 Load Cell ..........................................................................................137 5.6.2 Classification of Load Cells .............................................................137 5.7 Bonded Strain Gauge .....................................................................................144

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Contents xi 5.7.1 Construction and Principle ...............................................................144 5.7.2 Reasons for Using a Wheatstone Bridge ..........................................146 5.7.3 Wheatstone Bridge Configurations ..................................................146 5.8 Force Sensing Resistor (FSR)........................................................................152 5.8.1 Principle and Mechanisms................................................................152 5.8.2 Shunt-Mode FSR ..............................................................................152 5.8.3 Through-Mode FSR .........................................................................152 5.9 Monitoring Flow of Fluids, Liquids, and Gases: Flow Sensors ....................154 5.9.1 Role in Factory .................................................................................154 5.9.2 Classes of Flow Sensors ...................................................................154 5.10 Recording Liquid Levels in Containers and Tanks: Fluid Level Sensors........ 159 5.10.1 Types of Level Sensors and their Use in Industry ............................159 5.10.2 Capacitive Fluid Level Sensor ..........................................................159 5.10.3 Optical Fluid Level Sensor ...............................................................159 5.10.4 Conductivity Fluid Level Sensor ......................................................160 5.10.5 Vibrating Tuning Fork Fluid Level Sensor .......................................161 5.10.6 Float Switch Fluid Level Sensor ......................................................162 5.10.7 Ultrasonic Fluid Level Sensor ..........................................................163 5.10.8 FMCW RADAR Fluid Level Sensor ................................................164 5.10.9 Hydrostatic Fluid Level Sensor ........................................................166 5.11 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter ...................167 References ................................................................................................................167 Chapter 6 IoT Sensors for Traffic Control and Car Parking .....................................................169 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................169 6.2 The Intelligent Traffic Management System .................................................169 6.2.1 Meaning and Goals of the System ....................................................169 6.2.2 Subsystems in the Intelligent Traffic Management System .............169 6.3 Roadway Inductive Loop Sensor for Vehicle Detection ................................170 6.4 Roadway Magnetometer and Search Coil Vehicle Detection Sensors ..........172 6.4.1 Single-Axis Fluxgate Magnetometer with Two Bar-Shaped Cores ......172 6.4.2 Single-Axis Fluxgate Magnetometer with a Single Ring Core ........175 6.4.3 Two-Axis and Three-Axis Fluxgate Magnetometers using Bar-Shaped Cores .............................................................................177 6.4.4 Search Coil Magnetometer ...............................................................177 6.5 Microwave Radar Sensor ...............................................................................178 6.5.1 Special Features ................................................................................178 6.5.2 Principle of the Frequency-Modulated Continuous-Wave Radar ......179 6.5.3 Block Diagram of the Microwave Radar Sensor ..............................183 6.6 Roadside LIDAR Sensor ...............................................................................184 6.6.1 Vehicle Detection Principle ..............................................................184 6.6.2 Single-Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) .........................................185 6.6.3 Advantages and Limitations .............................................................186 6.7 Roadway Video Image Processor System .....................................................187 6.7.1 Construction and Working ................................................................187 6.7.2 Types of Roadway Video Image Processor Systems ........................187 6.8 Roadway Ultrasonic Vehicle Detection Sensors ............................................187 6.8.1 Detection of Vehicle .........................................................................187 6.8.2 Determining Vehicle Speed ..............................................................188

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xii Contents 6.8.3 Doppler Ultrasonic Sensor ...............................................................188 6.8.4 Piezoelectric MEMS Ultrasonic Transducers (PMUTs) ..................188 6.8.5 CMUT Structures Realized by Various Techniques .........................190 6.9 Roadway Infrared Vehicle Detection Sensors ...............................................193 6.9.1 Passive Infrared Sensors ...................................................................194 6.9.2 Active Infrared Sensors ....................................................................194 6.10 Smart Vehicle Parking Systems .....................................................................195 6.11 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter ...................195 References ................................................................................................................196 Chapter 7 IoT Sensors for Energy-Efficient Power Grid ..........................................................197 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................197 7.2 The Conventional and Smart Electrical Grids ...............................................197 7.2.1 The Conventional Electrical Grid .....................................................197 7.2.2 The Smart Electrical Grid.................................................................197 7.3 Monitoring Transformer Parameters: Current Sensor, Voltage Sensor, Temperature Sensor, and Transformer Oil Level Sensor ..................198 7.3.1 Current Sensor ..................................................................................198 7.3.2 Voltage Sensor ..................................................................................198 7.3.3 Temperature Sensors ........................................................................200 7.3.4 Transformer Oil-Level Sensors ........................................................200 7.4 Electronic Energy Measurement: Smart Metering ........................................203 7.4.1 Analog Voltage-to-Digital Conversion .............................................203 7.4.2 Electronic Energy Meter ..................................................................204 7.4.3 Smart Energy Meter .........................................................................205 7.5 Phasors, Synchrophasors, and Synchrophasor Measurements ......................208 7.5.1 Phasor ...............................................................................................208 7.5.2 Synchrophasor ..................................................................................211 7.5.3 Measurement of Synchrophasors .....................................................213 7.6 Dynamic Line Rating: Conductor and Ambience Sensors ............................218 7.6.1 DLR Sensors ....................................................................................219 7.6.2 Wind Speed and Direction Sensors ..................................................219 7.6.3 Solar Irradiance Sensors ...................................................................222 7.7 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter ...................224 References ................................................................................................................225 Chapter 8 IoT Sensors for Remote Health Monitoring .............................................................227 8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................227 8.2 Smart Healthcare ...........................................................................................227 8.3 Wearable Body Temperature Sensor .............................................................227 8.4 Heart Rate PPG (Photoplethysmography) Sensor .........................................228 8.4.1 Transmissive and Reflective Configurations of the PPG Sensor ......228 8.4.2 Relation Between the Intensity of Light Incident on the Photodiode of PPG Sensor and the Vascular Blood Volume Changes ............................................................................................231 8.4.3 Components of the PPG Signal ........................................................231 8.4.4 Wavelengths of LEDs Used in the PPG Sensor ...............................231 8.4.5 PPG Sensor Instrumentation ............................................................231 8.4.6 Heart Rate Determination from the PPG Waveform ........................231

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Contents xiii 8.5 Electrocardiograms and Heart Arrhythmias Sensing.....................................232 8.5.1 12-Lead ECG ....................................................................................232 8.5.2 The ECG Graph ................................................................................232 8.5.3 Single Lead ECG Sensor ..................................................................233 8.5.4 Cardiac Arrhythmia Detection Smartwatch PPG Sensor with 1-Lead ECG Recording ...........................................................234 8.6 Blood Pressure Measurement: Oscillometric Sensor ....................................235 8.6.1 Arm-Cuff Oscillometric Sensor ......................................................235 8.6.2 Watch-Type Wrist Cuff Oscillometric Sensor .................................238 8.7 Respiration Monitoring Sensor ......................................................................238 8.7.1 Capacitive Respiration Sensor ........................................................238 8.7.2 RFID Respiration Sensor ................................................................238 8.8 Saturation of Peripheral Oxygen (SpO2): Pulse Oximeter ............................241 8.8.1 SpO2 Level ......................................................................................241 8.8.2 Working Principle ...........................................................................241 8.8.3 Transmissive and Reflective-Type Oximeters .................................241 8.8.4 The Circuit of the Oximeter ............................................................241 8.8.5 SpO2 Calculation and Display .........................................................243 8.9 Wearable Epidermal Glucose Sensors ...........................................................245 8.9.1 Need for a Painless Glucose Test ....................................................245 8.9.2 Interstitial Fluid ...............................................................................245 8.9.3 Transdermal Reverse Iontophoresis Technique for ISF Extraction .................................................................................245 8.9.4 GlucoWatch® Biographer ................................................................245 8.9.5 Highly Integrated Glucose Monitoring Watch ................................247 8.10 Wearable Multiplexed Perspiration Analysis Sensor Array for Simultaneous Detection of Glucose, Lactate, Sodium, and Potassium Ions, and Skin Temperature ...........................................................................249 8.11 Fall Detection Sensors ...................................................................................250 8.11.1 Wearable Fall Sensor .......................................................................250 8.11.2 Ambient Fall Sensor ........................................................................250 8.12 Fitness Tracker Sensors .................................................................................250 8.12.1 GPS Sensor......................................................................................250 8.12.2 Magnetometer .................................................................................251 8.12.3 Triaxial Accelerometer and Pedometer ...........................................251 8.12.4 Three-Axis Gyroscope ....................................................................251 8.12.5 Optical Heart Rate Monitor and Oximetry Sensor ..........................251 8.12.6 ECG Sensor .....................................................................................251 8.12.7 Altimeter .........................................................................................251 8.12.8 Bioimpedance Sensor for Monitoring Respiratory Rate .................251 8.12.9 Electrodermal Activity (EDA) Sensor .............................................252 8.12.10 Skin Temperature Sensor ................................................................252 8.12.11 UV Sensor .......................................................................................252 8.12.12 Ambient Light Sensor .....................................................................254 8.12.13 Proximity Sensor .............................................................................254 8.12.14 Hand Gesture Recognition Sensor ..................................................254 8.13 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter ...................254 References ................................................................................................................254

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xiv Contents Chapter 9 IoT Sensors for Precision Agriculture and Farming .................................................257 9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................257 9.2 Precision Agriculture and Farming ................................................................257 9.3 Collecting Real-Time Data on Soil Moisture Content and Combining with Weather Forecasts for Optimum Water Usage in Irrigation: Soil Moisture and Rain Sensors ............................................................................257 9.3.1 Neutron Moisture Probe ...................................................................258 9.3.2 Gamma Emission Soil Moisture Sensor ...........................................259 9.3.3 Gamma Attenuation Soil Moisture Sensor .......................................259 9.3.4 TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry) Soil Moisture Sensor ..............260 9.3.5 FDR (Frequency Domain Reflectometry) Soil Moisture Sensor…. .262 9.3.6 Tensiometer ......................................................................................262 9.3.7 Resistive Soil Moisture Sensor .........................................................264 9.3.8 Gypsum Block Soil Moisture Sensor ...............................................264 9.3.9 Capacitive Soil Moisture Sensor ......................................................265 9.3.10 Rain Sensors .....................................................................................265 9.4 Soil Fertility Management: Plant Macronutrient Sensors .............................266 9.4.1 Plant Macronutrients ........................................................................266 9.4.2 Optical Plant Nutrient Sensors .........................................................267 9.4.3 Electrochemical Plant Nutrient Sensors ...........................................268 9.5 Detection of Plant Diseases and Pest Threats: Visible Image Sensor, Thermography, Fluorescence, Hyperspectral Imaging and Gas Chromatography Sensors ...............................................................................272 9.5.1 Visible Camera Sensor .....................................................................272 9.5.2 Infrared Sensor and Infrared Thermal Imaging ................................272 9.5.3 Multispectral and Hyperspectral Imaging Camera Sensors .............273 9.5.4 Chlorophyll Fluorescence Imaging ..................................................273 9.5.5 Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry .....................................273 9.6 Farm Animal Health Management, and Environmental Sensors ...................274 9.6.1 Accelerometers and Pedometers ......................................................274 9.6.2 Rumination Microphone ..................................................................274 9.6.3 VOC Sensors ....................................................................................274 9.6.4 Farm Air Quality Monitoring Sensors ..............................................274 9.7 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter ...................275 References ................................................................................................................275 Chapter 10 IoT Sensors for Logistics, Fleet Management, and Retail Stores ............................277 10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................277 10.2 Role of IoT Sensors in Smart Logistics and Fleet Management ...................277 10.3 GPS Sensor (GPS Receiver) ..........................................................................278 10.3.1 Three-Block Configuration...............................................................278 10.3.2 Allocated Frequency Bands and Codes ............................................278 10.3.3 Navigation Message .........................................................................278 10.3.4 Code-Division Multiple Access ........................................................279 10.3.5 Pinpointing the Location of the User by Trilateration Technique ....279 10.3.6 GPS Observables ..............................................................................279 10.3.7 GPS Signal Acquisition ....................................................................280 10.3.8 Block Diagram of the GPS Receiver ................................................281

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Contents xv 10.4 Cargo Sensors and Cargo Container Monitoring...........................................283 10.4.1 Cargo Sensors ...................................................................................283 10.4.2 Cargo Container Monitoring ............................................................283 10.5 Role of IoT Sensors in Retail Stores .............................................................283 10.6 BLE Beacon, Wi-Fi, and GPS .......................................................................284 10.7 Beacon Module and Concept .........................................................................285 10.7.1 Bluetooth Low Energy Technology ..................................................285 10.7.2 Advertising and Discovery ...............................................................285 10.8 Indoor Positioning using BLE Beacons ........................................................286 10.8.1 Receiver Signal Strength Indicator–Based Indoor Positioning ........286 10.8.2 The Log-Distance Path Loss Model .................................................288 10.8.3 Localization Techniques ...................................................................289 10.8.4 Using BLE Beacons at the Front and Back End of Retail Business ............................................................................................290 10.9 Concluding Remarks and Preparing for the Upcoming Chapter ...................290 References ................................................................................................................290 Chapter 11 IoT Sensors for Smart City .......................................................................................292 11.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................292 11.2 The Smart City ..............................................................................................292 11.3 Role of IoT Sensors in Smart Cities ..............................................................292 11.4 Air Quality Index ...........................................................................................293 11.4.1 Major Air Pollutants ........................................................................293 11.4.2 Air Particulate Matter (PM) Sensor ................................................293 11.5 Semiconductor Metal Oxide (SMOx) Gas Sensors ........................................294 11.5.1 Types of Metal Oxide Gas Sensors .................................................294 11.5.2 CO Sensor .......................................................................................297 11.5.3 NO2 Sensor ......................................................................................297 11.5.4 Gas Sensing Mechanism of SMOx Sensors.....................................297 11.6 Electrochemical Gas Sensors ........................................................................303 11.6.1 SO2 Sensor.......................................................................................304 11.6.2 H2S Sensor.......................................................................................304 11.6.3 Ammonia Sensor .............................................................................305 11.6.4 Airborne Lead Particles Sensor .......................................................306 11.7 Non-dispersive (NDIR) Infrared Gas Sensors: CO, CO2, NH3 .....................307 11.7.1 Single Beam IR Gas Sensor ............................................................307 11.7.2 Double Beam IR Gas Sensor...........................................................309 11.8 UV Absorbance Ozone Sensor ......................................................................309 11.9 Radon Detectors ............................................................................................310 11.9.1 Passive Radon Detectors .................................................................311 11.9.2 Active Radon Detectors ..................................................................312 11.10 Wireless Noise-Monitoring Sensor Unit .......................................................312 11.11 Smart Waste Bin with Ultrasonic Waste Bin Sensor .....................................314 11.12 Electronic Water Metering .............................................................................315 11.12.1 Ultrasonic Flow Sensors for Water Metering ..................................315 11.12.2 Electromagnetic Water Flow Meter.................................................318 11.13 Chlorine-in-Water Sensors ............................................................................318 11.13.1 Three-Electrode Integrated Electrochemical Sensor using BDD Film for Online Chlorine Monitoring ....................................318

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xvi Contents 11.13.2 Low-Cost Graphite-Based Amperometric Sensor for Chlorine in Tap Water ....................................................................................321 11.14 Water Turbidity Sensors ................................................................................321 11.14.1 Nephelometric Turbidity Sensor ......................................................323 11.14.2 Absorption Turbidity Sensor ............................................................323 11.14.3 Total Suspended Solids Turbidity Sensor .........................................323 11.14.4 Units of Turbidity .............................................................................323 11.15 Measuring Total Dissolved Solids in Water with Conductivity Cells ...........326 11.16 Smart Streetlighting .......................................................................................326 11.17 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives ..............................................328 References ................................................................................................................328 Index ..............................................................................................................................................331

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xvii About the Author INTRODUCTION Vinod Kumar Khanna is an independent researcher from Chandigarh, India. He is a retired Chief Scientist from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) – Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute (CEERI), Pilani, India, and a retired Professor from the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India. He is a former Emeritus Scientist, CSIR, and Professor Emeritus, AcSIR, India. His broad areas of research include the design, fabrication, and characterization of power semiconductor devices and micro- and nanosensors. ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS He received an M.Sc. Degree in Physics with a specialization in Electronics from the University of Lucknow in 1975 and a Ph.D. degree in Physics from Kurukshetra University in 1988 for the thesis titled, ‘Development, Characterization and Modeling of the Porous Alumina Humidity Sensor’. RESEARCH/TEACHING EXPERIENCE AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS His research experience spans over a period of 40 years, from 1977 to 2017. Starting his career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Physics, University of Lucknow, from 1977 to 1980, he joined CSIR- CEERI, Pilani (Rajasthan), in April 1980. There, he worked on several CSIR- funded as well as sponsored research and development projects. His major fields of research included power semiconductor devices and microelectronics/MEMS and nanotechnology- based sensors and dosimeters. In the power semiconductor devices area, he worked on the high- voltage and high- current recti- fier (600A, 4,300V) for railway traction, high- voltage TV deflection transistor (5A, 1,600V), power Darlington transistor for AC motor drives (100A, 500V), fast- switching thyristor (1,300A, 1,700V), power DMOSFET, and IGBT. He contributed toward the development of sealed tube Ga/Al diffu- sion for deep junctions, surface electric field control techniques using edge beveling and contouring of large- area devices, and floating field limiting ring design. He carried out an extensive character- ization of minority- carrier lifetime in power semiconductor devices as a function of process steps. He also contributed toward the development of the P- I- N diode neutron dosimeter and PMOSFET- based gamma- ray dosimeter. In the area of sensor technology, he worked on the nanoporous aluminum oxide humidity sensor, ion- sensitive field- effect transistor- based microsensors for biomedical, food, and environmental applications; microheater- embedded gas sensor for automotive electronics, MEMS acoustic sensor for satellite launch vehicles, and capacitive MEMS ultrasonic transducer for medical applications. As an AcSIR faculty member, he was the course coordinator of MEMS/IC Technology for the advanced semiconductor electronics program (2011–2013) and taught ‘MEMS Technology’ to stu- dents pursuing M.Tech. degree. As an adjunct faculty, BESU, Kolkata, he taught ‘MEMS Technology & Design’ to M.Tech. (Mechatronics) students. He was invited by IIT, Jodhpur, to deliver lectures on ‘Semiconductor Fundamentals and Technology’ to B.Tech. students during February 2011. He guided B.Tech./M.Tech. theses of students from BITS, Pilani; VIT, Vellore; and Kurukshetra University. He also guided a Ph.D. thesis on ‘MEMS acoustic sensor’, MNIT, Jaipur.

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xviii About the Author SEMICONDUCTOR FACILITY CREATION AND MAINTENANCE He was responsible for setting up and looking after diffusion/oxidation facilities, edge beveling and contouring, reactive sputtering, and carrier lifetime measurement facilities. As the Head of the MEMS and Microsensors Group, he looked after the maintenance of a six- inch MEMS fabrication facility for R&D projects as well as the augmentation of processing equipment under this facility at CSIR- CEERI. SCIENTIFIC POSITIONS HELD During his tenure of service at CSIR- CEERI from April 1980 till superannuation in November 2014, he was promoted to various positions including one merit promotion. He retired as a Chief Scientist and Professor (AcSIR) and as the Head of MEMS and Microsensors Group. Subsequently, he worked for three years as an Emeritus Scientist, CSIR, and Emeritus Professor, AcSIR, from November 2014 to November 2017. After the completion of the emeritus scientist scheme, he now lives in Chandigarh. He is a passionate author and enjoys reading and writing. MEMBERSHIP OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES He is a Fellow and Life Member of the Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE), India. He is a life member of the Indian Physics Association (IPA), Semiconductor Society, India (SSI), and Indo- French Technical Association (IFTA). FOREIGN TRAVEL He has traveled widely. He had participated in and presented research papers at the IEEE Industry Application Society (IEEE- IAS) Annual Meeting in Denver, Colorado, USA, in September–October 1986. His short- term research assignments include deputations to Technische Universität Darmstadt, Germany, in 1999; at Kurt- Schwabe- Institut fur Mess- und Sensortechnike e.V., Meinsberg, Germany, in 2008; and at Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Trento, Italy, in 2011, under collaborative programs. He was a member of the Indian Delegation to the Institute of Chemical Physics, Novosibirsk, Russia, in 2009. SCHOLARSHIPS AND AWARDS He was awarded a National Scholarship by the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, Government of India, on the basis of a Higher Secondary result, 1970; CEERI Foundation Day Merit Team Award for projects on fast- switching thyristor (1986); for power Darlington transistor for transporta- tion (1988), for P- I- N diode neutron dosimeter (1992); and for high- voltage TV deflection transistor (1994); Dr. N. G. Patel Prize for best poster presentation in the 12th National Seminar on Physics and Technology of Sensors, 2007, BARC, Mumbai; CSIR- DAAD Fellowship in 2008 under Indo- German Bilateral Exchange Programme of Senior scientists, 2008. He is featured in the Stanford– Elsevier prestigious list of the world’s top 2% scientists (2022, Elsevier Data Repository, V4, doi:10.17632/btchxktzyw.4). RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS AND BOOKS He has published 194 research papers in leading peer- reviewed national/international journals and conference proceedings. He has authored 20 books and has also contributed 6 chapters to edited books. He has five granted patents to his credit, including two US patents.

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xix About the Book Leveraging the connectivity provided by the Internet of Things (IoT) with the information acquired by sensors has expanded the capabilities of sensors exponentially. The powerful synergy of sensors and IoT technologies has offered novel opportunities to develop innovative IoT applications for creating smart homes, offices, factory automation, traffic control on busy roads, maximizing the energy efficiency of the power distribution grid, facilitating the provision of human healthcare, ensuring best agricultural practices, securing safe transportation and sale of goods and services, and, above all, for developing smart cities. Sensors are the eyes, ears, noses, tongues, and skin perception devices in these systems which supply the input signals to the IoT, and, in this way, serve as the main components determining the overall performance of an IoT project. This research and reference book sketches a perspective of the IoT with sensors as the focus of attention. Diverse applications of the IoT that are destined to make an impact on our everyday lives in the near future are discussed, ranging from the fundamentals to state- of- the- art developments to facili- tate easy understanding. The book is organized into 11 chapters whose contents are summarized below: Chapter 1 introduces the reader to the IoT ecosystem built from a network of interrelated devices in which sensors play the leading role. Chapter 2 provides a framework for the IoT applications, giving an overview of standard oper- ating procedures and facilities available to set up IoT systems. Chapter 3 discusses the IoT capabilities that can be incorporated into new dwellings and offices or during the renovation of existing ones. Chapter 4 considers the use of IoT sensors for factory automation, primarily in tracking com- ponents, checking gaps and alignments, and detecting vibratory and angular motions. Chapter 5 fosters factory automation still forward by presenting the deployment of sensors for controlling vital parameters such as temperature, pressure, vacuum, force, fluid flow, and level. Chapter 6 presents the widespread utilization of IoT sensors in traffic control, principally magnetic sensors, microwave RADAR and LiDAR, and ultrasonic and infrared vehicle detection devices. Chapter 7 shows the use of IoT sensors in enhancing the operational efficiency of the power grid, such as voltage and current sensors, transformer winding and oil temperature sensors, dynamic line rating sensors for wind speed and direction, and solar irradiance sensors. Smart electronic energy meters, phasors, synchrophasors, and phasor measurement units are discussed. Chapter 8 sheds light on the use of IoT sensors for promoting and restoring human health and for coping with disability. Notable examples include the PPG sensors, 1- lead ECG devices, arm- cuff and watch- type wrist cuff oscillometric sensors for blood pressure measurements, respiration sensors, pulse oximeters, painless glucose monitoring, and multiplexed perspi- ration analysis. Chapter 9 describes the application of IoT sensors for real- time data collection on soil mois- ture content, and plant macronutrients. Sensors for the detection of plant diseases and pest threats are outlined. Also, sensors for farm animal health and welfare are presented. Chapter 10 highlights the impact of GPS on logistics and fleet management. The GPS tracking over long distances is supported by BLE beacon technology in indoor positioning, particu- larly in big shopping malls and retail stores.