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ptg10564057 The C++ Programming Language Fourth Edition Bjarne Stroustrup Upper Saddle River, NJ • Boston • Indianapolis • San Francisco New York • Totonto • Montreal • London • Munich • Paris • Madrid Capetown • Sydney • Tokyo • Singapore • Mexico City

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ptg10564057 Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed with initial capital letters or in all capitals. The author and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of the use of the information or programs contained herein. The publisher offers excellent discounts on this book when ordered in quantity for bulk purchases or special sales, which may include electronic versions and/or custom covers and content particular to your business, training goals, marketing focus, and branding interests. For more information, please contact: U.S. Corporate and Government Sales (800) 382-3419 corpsales@pearsontechgroup.com For sales outside the United States, please contact: International Sales international@pearsoned.com Visit us on the Web: informit.com/aw Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stroustrup, Bjarne. The C++ programming language / Bjarne Stroustrup.—Fourth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-321-56384-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)—ISBN 0-321-56384-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. C++ (Computer programming language) I. Title. QA76.73.C153 S77 2013 005.13’3—dc23 2013002159 Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission must be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to (201) 236-3290. This book was typeset in Times and Helvetica by the author. ISBN-13: 978-0-321-56384-2 ISBN-10: 0-321-56384-0 Te xt printed in the United States on recycled paper at Edwards Brothers Malloy in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Second printing, June 2013

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ptg10564057 Contents Contents iii Preface v Preface to the Fourth Edition ...................................................... v Preface to the Third Edition ........................................................ ix Preface to the Second Edition ..................................................... xi Preface to the First Edition ......................................................... xii Part I: Introductory Material 1. Notes to the Reader ..................................................................... 3 2. A Tour of C++: The Basics ......................................................... 37 3. A Tour of C++: Abstraction Mechanisms ................................... 59 4. A Tour of C++: Containers and Algorithms ............................... 87 5. A Tour of C++: Concurrency and Utilities ................................. 111 Part II: Basic Facilities 133 6. Types and Declarations ............................................................... 135 7. Pointers, Arrays, and References ................................................ 171 8. Structures, Unions, and Enumerations ........................................ 201 9. Statements ................................................................................... 225 10. Expressions ................................................................................. 241

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ptg10564057 iv Contents 11. Select Operations ........................................................................ 273 12. Functions ..................................................................................... 305 13. Exception Handling .................................................................... 343 14. Namespaces ................................................................................. 389 15. Source Files and Programs .......................................................... 419 Part III: Abstraction Mechanisms 447 16. Classes ........................................................................................ 449 17. Construction, Cleanup, Copy, and Move .................................... 481 18. Overloading ................................................................................. 527 19. Special Operators ........................................................................ 549 20. Derived Classes ........................................................................... 577 21. Class Hierarchies ........................................................................ 613 22. Run-Time Type Information ....................................................... 641 23. Templates .................................................................................... 665 24. Generic Programming ................................................................. 699 25. Specialization .............................................................................. 721 26. Instantiation ................................................................................ 741 27. Templates and Hierarchies .......................................................... 759 28. Metaprogramming ....................................................................... 779 29. A Matrix Design ......................................................................... 827 Part IV: The Standard Library 857 30. Standard Library Summary ......................................................... 859 31. STL Containers ........................................................................... 885 32. STL Algorithms .......................................................................... 927 33. STL Iterators ............................................................................... 953 34. Memory and Resources ............................................................... 973 35. Utilities ........................................................................................ 1009 36. Strings ......................................................................................... 1033 37. Regular Expressions .................................................................... 1051 38. I/O Streams ................................................................................. 1073 39. Locales ........................................................................................ 1109 40. Numerics ..................................................................................... 1159 41. Concurrency ................................................................................ 1191 42. Threads and Tasks ....................................................................... 1209 43. The C Standard Library .............................................................. 1253 44. Compatibility .............................................................................. 1267 Index 1281

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ptg10564057 Preface All problems in computer science can be solved by another level of indirection, except for the problem of too many layers of indirection. – David J. Wheeler C++ feels like a new language. That is, I can express my ideas more clearly, more simply, and more directly in C++11 than I could in C++98. Furthermore, the resulting programs are better checked by the compiler and run faster. In this book, I aim for completeness. I describe every language feature and standard-library component that a professional programmer is likely to need. For each, I provide: • Rationale: What kinds of problems is it designed to help solve? What principles underlie the design? What are the fundamental limitations? • Specification: What is its definition? The level of detail is chosen for the expert program- mer; the aspiring language lawyer can follow the many references to the ISO standard. • Examples: How can it be used well by itself and in combination with other features? What are the key techniques and idioms? What are the implications for maintainability and per- formance? The use of C++ has changed dramatically over the years and so has the language itself. From the point of view of a programmer, most of the changes have been improvements. The current ISO standard C++ (ISO/IEC 14882-2011, usually called C++11) is simply a far better tool for writing quality software than were previous versions. How is it a better tool? What kinds of programming styles and techniques does modern C++ support? What language and standard-library features sup- port those techniques? What are the basic building blocks of elegant, correct, maintainable, and efficient C++ code? Those are the key questions answered by this book. Many answers are not the same as you would find with 1985, 1995, or 2005 vintage C++: progress happens. C++ is a general-purpose programming language emphasizing the design and use of type-rich, lightweight abstractions. It is particularly suited for resource-constrained applications, such as those found in software infrastructures. C++ rewards the programmer who takes the time to master

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ptg10564057 vi Preface techniques for writing quality code. C++ is a language for someone who takes the task of program- ming seriously. Our civilization depends critically on software; it had better be quality software. There are billions of lines of C++ deployed. This puts a premium on stability, so 1985 and 1995 C++ code still works and will continue to work for decades. However, for all applications, you can do better with modern C++; if you stick to older styles, you will be writing lower-quality and worse-performing code. The emphasis on stability also implies that standards-conforming code you write today will still work a couple of decades from now. All code in this book conforms to the 2011 ISO C++ standard. This book is aimed at three audiences: • C++ programmers who want to know what the latest ISO C++ standard has to offer, • C programmers who wonder what C++ provides beyond C, and • People with a background in application languages, such as Java, C#, Python, and Ruby, looking for something ‘‘closer to the machine’’ – something more flexible, something offer- ing better compile-time checking, or something offering better performance. Naturally, these three groups are not disjoint – a professional software developer masters more than just one programming language. This book assumes that its readers are programmers. If you ask, ‘‘What’s a for-loop?’’ or ‘‘What’s a compiler?’’ then this book is not (yet) for you; instead, I recommend my Programming: Principles and Practice Using C++ to get started with programming and C++. Furthermore, I assume that readers have some maturity as software developers. If you ask ‘‘Why bother testing?’’ or say, ‘‘All languages are basically the same; just show me the syntax’’ or are confident that there is a single language that is ideal for every task, this is not the book for you. What features does C++11 offer over and above C++98? A machine model suitable for modern computers with lots of concurrency. Language and standard-library facilities for doing systems- level concurrent programming (e.g., using multicores). Regular expression handling, resource management pointers, random numbers, improved containers (including, hash tables), and more. General and uniform initialization, a simpler for-statement, move semantics, basic Unicode support, lambdas, general constant expressions, control over class defaults, variadic templates, user-defined literals, and more. Please remember that those libraries and language features exist to support pro- gramming techniques for developing quality software. They are meant to be used in combination – as bricks in a building set – rather than to be used individually in relative isolation to solve a spe- cific problem. A computer is a universal machine, and C++ serves it in that capacity. In particular, C++’s design aims to be sufficiently flexible and general to cope with future problems undreamed of by its designers.

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ptg10564057 vii Acknowledgments In addition to the people mentioned in the acknowledgment sections of the previous editions, I would like to thank Pete Becker, Hans-J. Boehm, Marshall Clow, Jonathan Coe, Lawrence Crowl, Walter Daugherty, J. Daniel Garcia, Robert Harle, Greg Hickman, Howard Hinnant, Brian Kernighan, Daniel Krügler, Nevin Liber, Michel Michaud, Gary Powell, Jan Christiaan van Winkel, and Leor Zolman. Without their help this book would have been much poorer. Thanks to Howard Hinnant for answering many questions about the standard library. Andrew Sutton is the author of the Origin library, which was the testbed for much of the discus- sion of emulating concepts in the template chapters, and of the matrix library that is the topic of Chapter 29. The Origin library is open source and can be found by searching the Web for ‘‘Origin’’ and ‘‘Andrew Sutton.’’ Thanks to my graduate design class for finding more problems with the ‘‘tour chapters’’ than anyone else. Had I been able to follow every piece of advice of my reviewers, the book would undoubtedly have been much improved, but it would also have been hundreds of pages longer. Every expert reviewer suggested adding technical details, advanced examples, and many useful development conventions; every novice reviewer (or educator) suggested adding examples; and most reviewers observed (correctly) that the book may be too long. Thanks to Princeton University’s Computer Science Department, and especially Prof. Brian Kernighan, for hosting me for part of the sabbatical that gav e me time to write this book. Thanks to Cambridge University’s Computer Lab, and especially Prof. Andy Hopper, for host- ing me for part of the sabbatical that gav e me time to write this book. Thanks to my editor, Peter Gordon, and his production team at Addison-Wesley for their help and patience. College Station, Texas Bjarne Stroustrup

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ptg10564057 Preface to the Third Edition Programming is understanding. – Kristen Nygaard I find using C++ more enjoyable than ever. C++’s support for design and programming has improved dramatically over the years, and lots of new helpful techniques have been developed for its use. However, C++ is not just fun. Ordinary practical programmers have achieved significant improvements in productivity, maintainability, flexibility, and quality in projects of just about any kind and scale. By now, C++ has fulfilled most of the hopes I originally had for it, and also suc- ceeded at tasks I hadn’t even dreamt of. This book introduces standard C++† and the key programming and design techniques supported by C++. Standard C++ is a far more powerful and polished language than the version of C++ intro- duced by the first edition of this book. New language features such as namespaces, exceptions, templates, and run-time type identification allow many techniques to be applied more directly than was possible before, and the standard library allows the programmer to start from a much higher level than the bare language. About a third of the information in the second edition of this book came from the first. This third edition is the result of a rewrite of even larger magnitude. It offers something to even the most experienced C++ programmer; at the same time, this book is easier for the novice to approach than its predecessors were. The explosion of C++ use and the massive amount of experience accumu- lated as a result makes this possible. The definition of an extensive standard library makes a difference to the way C++ concepts can be presented. As before, this book presents C++ independently of any particular implementation, and as before, the tutorial chapters present language constructs and concepts in a ‘‘bottom up’’ order so that a construct is used only after it has been defined. However, it is much easier to use a well-designed library than it is to understand the details of its implementation. Therefore, the stan- dard library can be used to provide realistic and interesting examples well before a reader can be assumed to understand its inner workings. The standard library itself is also a fertile source of pro- gramming examples and design techniques. This book presents every major C++ language feature and the standard library. It is org anized around language and library facilities. However, features are presented in the context of their use. † ISO/IEC 14882, Standard for the C++ Programming Language.

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ptg10564057 x Preface to the Third Edition That is, the focus is on the language as the tool for design and programming rather than on the lan- guage in itself. This book demonstrates key techniques that make C++ effective and teaches the fundamental concepts necessary for mastery. Except where illustrating technicalities, examples are taken from the domain of systems software. A companion, The Annotated C++ Language Stan- dard, presents the complete language definition together with annotations to make it more compre- hensible. The primary aim of this book is to help the reader understand how the facilities offered by C++ support key programming techniques. The aim is to take the reader far beyond the point where he or she gets code running primarily by copying examples and emulating programming styles from other languages. Only a good understanding of the ideas behind the language facilities leads to mastery. Supplemented by implementation documentation, the information provided is sufficient for completing significant real-world projects. The hope is that this book will help the reader gain new insights and become a better programmer and designer. Acknowledgments In addition to the people mentioned in the acknowledgement sections of the first and second edi- tions, I would like to thank Matt Austern, Hans Boehm, Don Caldwell, Lawrence Crowl, Alan Feuer, Andrew Forrest, David Gay, Tim Griffin, Peter Juhl, Brian Kernighan, Andrew Koenig, Mike Mowbray, Rob Murray, Lee Nackman, Joseph Newcomer, Alex Stepanov, David Vandevoorde, Peter Weinberger, and Chris Van Wyk for commenting on draft chapters of this third edition. With- out their help and suggestions, this book would have been harder to understand, contained more errors, been slightly less complete, and probably been a little bit shorter. I would also like to thank the volunteers on the C++ standards committees who did an immense amount of constructive work to make C++ what it is today. It is slightly unfair to single out indi- viduals, but it would be even more unfair not to mention anyone, so I’d like to especially mention Mike Ball, Dag Brück, Sean Corfield, Ted Goldstein, Kim Knuttila, Andrew Koenig, Dmitry Lenkov, Nathan Myers, Martin O’Riordan, Tom Plum, Jonathan Shopiro, John Spicer, Jerry Schwarz, Alex Stepanov, and Mike Vilot, as people who each directly cooperated with me over some part of C++ and its standard library. After the initial printing of this book, many dozens of people have mailed me corrections and suggestions for improvements. I have been able to accommodate many of their suggestions within the framework of the book so that later printings benefitted significantly. Translators of this book into many languages have also provided many clarifications. In response to requests from readers, I have added appendices D and E. Let me take this opportunity to thank a few of those who helped: Dave Abrahams, Matt Austern, Jan Bielawski, Janina Mincer Daszkiewicz, Andrew Koenig, Diet- mar Kühl, Nicolai Josuttis, Nathan Myers, Paul E. Sevin ̧c, Andy Tenne-Sens, Shoichi Uchida, Ping-Fai (Mike) Yang, and Dennis Yelle. Murray Hill, New Jersey Bjarne Stroustrup

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ptg10564057 Preface to the Second Edition The road goes ever on and on. – Bilbo Baggins As promised in the first edition of this book, C++ has been evolving to meet the needs of its users. This evolution has been guided by the experience of users of widely varying backgrounds working in a great range of application areas. The C++ user-community has grown a hundredfold during the six years since the first edition of this book; many lessons have been learned, and many techniques have been discovered and/or validated by experience. Some of these experiences are reflected here. The primary aim of the language extensions made in the last six years has been to enhance C++ as a language for data abstraction and object-oriented programming in general and to enhance it as a tool for writing high-quality libraries of user-defined types in particular. A ‘‘high-quality library,’’ is a library that provides a concept to a user in the form of one or more classes that are convenient, safe, and efficient to use. In this context, safe means that a class provides a specific type-safe interface between the users of the library and its providers; efficient means that use of the class does not impose significant overheads in run-time or space on the user compared with hand- written C code. This book presents the complete C++ language. Chapters 1 through 10 give a tutorial introduc- tion; Chapters 11 through 13 provide a discussion of design and software development issues; and, finally, the complete C++ reference manual is included. Naturally, the features added and resolu- tions made since the original edition are integral parts of the presentation. They include refined overloading resolution, memory management facilities, and access control mechanisms, type-safe linkage, const and static member functions, abstract classes, multiple inheritance, templates, and exception handling. C++ is a general-purpose programming language; its core application domain is systems pro- gramming in the broadest sense. In addition, C++ is successfully used in many application areas that are not covered by this label. Implementations of C++ exist from some of the most modest microcomputers to the largest supercomputers and for almost all operating systems. Consequently, this book describes the C++ language itself without trying to explain a particular implementation, programming environment, or library. This book presents many examples of classes that, though useful, should be classified as ‘‘toys.’’ This style of exposition allows general principles and useful techniques to stand out more clearly than they would in a fully elaborated program, where they would be buried in details. Most

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ptg10564057 xii Preface to the Second Edition of the useful classes presented here, such as linked lists, arrays, character strings, matrices, graphics classes, associative arrays, etc., are available in ‘‘bulletproof ’’ and/or ‘‘goldplated’’ versions from a wide variety of commercial and non-commercial sources. Many of these ‘‘industrial strength’’ classes and libraries are actually direct and indirect descendants of the toy versions found here. This edition provides a greater emphasis on tutorial aspects than did the first edition of this book. However, the presentation is still aimed squarely at experienced programmers and endeavors not to insult their intelligence or experience. The discussion of design issues has been greatly expanded to reflect the demand for information beyond the description of language features and their immediate use. Technical detail and precision have also been increased. The reference man- ual, in particular, represents many years of work in this direction. The intent has been to provide a book with a depth sufficient to make more than one reading rewarding to most programmers. In other words, this book presents the C++ language, its fundamental principles, and the key tech- niques needed to apply it. Enjoy! Acknowledgments In addition to the people mentioned in the acknowledgements section in the preface to the first edi- tion, I would like to thank Al Aho, Steve Buroff, Jim Coplien, Ted Goldstein, Tony Hansen, Lor- raine Juhl, Peter Juhl, Brian Kernighan, Andrew Koenig, Bill Leggett, Warren Montgomery, Mike Mowbray, Rob Murray, Jonathan Shopiro, Mike Vilot, and Peter Weinberger for commenting on draft chapters of this second edition. Many people influenced the development of C++ from 1985 to 1991. I can mention only a few: Andrew Koenig, Brian Kernighan, Doug McIlroy, and Jonathan Shopiro. Also thanks to the many participants of the ‘‘external reviews’’ of the reference manual drafts and to the people who suffered through the first year of X3J16. Murray Hill, New Jersey Bjarne Stroustrup

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ptg10564057 Preface to the First Edition Language shapes the way we think, and determines what we can think about. – B.L.Whorf C++ is a general purpose programming language designed to make programming more enjoyable for the serious programmer. Except for minor details, C++ is a superset of the C programming lan- guage. In addition to the facilities provided by C, C++ provides flexible and efficient facilities for defining new types. A programmer can partition an application into manageable pieces by defining new types that closely match the concepts of the application. This technique for program construc- tion is often called data abstraction. Objects of some user-defined types contain type information. Such objects can be used conveniently and safely in contexts in which their type cannot be deter- mined at compile time. Programs using objects of such types are often called object based. When used well, these techniques result in shorter, easier to understand, and easier to maintain programs. The key concept in C++ is class. A class is a user-defined type. Classes provide data hiding, guaranteed initialization of data, implicit type conversion for user-defined types, dynamic typing, user-controlled memory management, and mechanisms for overloading operators. C++ provides much better facilities for type checking and for expressing modularity than C does. It also contains improvements that are not directly related to classes, including symbolic constants, inline substitu- tion of functions, default function arguments, overloaded function names, free store management operators, and a reference type. C++ retains C’s ability to deal efficiently with the fundamental objects of the hardware (bits, bytes, words, addresses, etc.). This allows the user-defined types to be implemented with a pleasing degree of efficiency. C++ and its standard libraries are designed for portability. The current implementation will run on most systems that support C. C libraries can be used from a C++ program, and most tools that support programming in C can be used with C++. This book is primarily intended to help serious programmers learn the language and use it for nontrivial projects. It provides a complete description of C++, many complete examples, and many more program fragments.

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ptg10564057 xiv Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgments C++ could never hav e matured without the constant use, suggestions, and constructive criticism of many friends and colleagues. In particular, Tom Cargill, Jim Coplien, Stu Feldman, Sandy Fraser, Steve Johnson, Brian Kernighan, Bart Locanthi, Doug McIlroy, Dennis Ritchie, Larry Rosler, Jerry Schwarz, and Jon Shopiro provided important ideas for development of the language. Dave Pre- sotto wrote the current implementation of the stream I/O library. In addition, hundreds of people contributed to the development of C++ and its compiler by sending me suggestions for improvements, descriptions of problems they had encountered, and compiler errors. I can mention only a few: Gary Bishop, Andrew Hume, Tom Karzes, Victor Milenkovic, Rob Murray, Leonie Rose, Brian Schmult, and Gary Walker. Many people have also helped with the production of this book, in particular, Jon Bentley, Laura Eaves, Brian Kernighan, Ted Kow alski, Steve Mahaney, Jon Shopiro, and the participants in the C++ course held at Bell Labs, Columbus, Ohio, June 26-27, 1985. Murray Hill, New Jersey Bjarne Stroustrup

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ptg10564057 Part I Introduction This introduction gives an overview of the major concepts and features of the C++ pro- gramming language and its standard library. It also provides an overview of this book and explains the approach taken to the description of the language facilities and their use. In addition, the introductory chapters present some background information about C++, the design of C++, and the use of C++. Chapters 1 Notes to the Reader 2 A Tour of C++: The Basics 3 A Tour of C++: Abstraction Mechanisms 4 A Tour of C++: Containers and Algorithms 5 A Tour of C++: Concurrency and Utilities

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ptg10564057 2 Introduction Part I ‘‘... and you, Marcus, you have giv en me many things; now I shall give you this good advice. Be many people. Give up the game of being always Marcus Cocoza. You have worried too much about Marcus Cocoza, so that you have been really his slave and prisoner. You have not done anything without first considering how it would affect Marcus Cocoza’s happiness and prestige. You were always much afraid that Marcus might do a stupid thing, or be bored. What would it really have mattered? All over the world people are doing stupid things ... I should like you to be easy, your little heart to be light again. You must from now, be more than one, many people, as many as you can think of ...’’ – Karen Blixen, The Dreamers from Seven Gothic Tales (1934)

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ptg10564057 1 Notes to the Reader Hurry Slowly (festina lente). – Octavius, Caesar Augustus • The Structure of This Book Introduction; Basic Facilities; Abstraction Mechanisms; The Standard Library; Examples and References • The Design of C++ Programming Styles; Type Checking; C Compatibility; Language, Libraries, and Systems • Learning C++ Programming in C++; Suggestions for C++ Programmers; Suggestions for C Programmers; Suggestions for Java Programmers • History Timeline; The Early Years; The 1998 Standard; The 2011 Standard; What is C++ Used for? • Advice • References 1.1 The Structure of This Book A pure tutorial sorts its topics so that no concept is used before it has been introduced; it must be read linearly starting with page one. Conversely, a pure reference manual can be accessed starting at any point; it describes each topic succinctly with references (forward and backward) to related topics. A pure tutorial can in principle be read without prerequisites – it carefully describes all. A pure reference can be used only by someone familiar with all fundamental concepts and techniques. This book combines aspects of both. If you know most concepts and techniques, you can access it on a per-chapter or even on a per-section basis. If not, you can start at the beginning, but try not to get bogged down in details. Use the index and the cross-references.

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ptg10564057 4 Notes to the Reader Chapter 1 Making parts of the book relatively self-contained implies some repetition, but repetition also serves as review for people reading the book linearly. The book is heavily cross-referenced both to itself and to the ISO C++ standard. Experienced programmers can read the (relatively) quick ‘‘tour’’ of C++ to gain the overview needed to use the book as a reference. This book consists of four parts: Part I Introduction: Chapter 1 (this chapter) is a guide to this book and provides a bit of C++ background. Chapters 2-5 give a quick introduction to the C++ language and its standard library. Part II Basic Facilities: Chapters 6-15 describe C++’s built-in types and the basic facili- ties for constructing programs out of them. Part III Abstraction Mechanisms: Chapters 16-29 describe C++’s abstraction mecha- nisms and their use for object-oriented and generic programming. Part IV Chapters 30-44 provide an overview of the standard library and a discussion of compatibility issues. 1.1.1 Introduction This chapter, Chapter 1, provides an overview of this book, some hints about how to use it, and some background information about C++ and its use. You are encouraged to skim through it, read what appears interesting, and return to it after reading other parts of the book. Please do not feel obliged to read it all carefully before proceeding. The following chapters provide an overview of the major concepts and features of the C++ pro- gramming language and its standard library: Chapter 2 A Tour of C++: The Basics describes C++’s model of memory, computation, and error handling. Chapter 3 A Tour of C++: Abstraction Mechanisms presents the language features support- ing data abstraction, object-oriented programming, and generic programming. Chapter 4 A Tour of C++: Containers and Algorithms introduces strings, simple I/O, con- tainers, and algorithms as provided by the standard library. Chapter 5 A Tour of C++: Concurrency and Utilities outlines the standard-library utilities related to resource management, concurrency, mathematical computation, regu- lar expressions, and more. This whirlwind tour of C++’s facilities aims to give the reader a taste of what C++ offers. In partic- ular, it should convince readers that C++ has come a long way since the first, second, and third edi- tions of this book. 1.1.2 Basic Facilities Part II focuses on the subset of C++ that supports the styles of programming traditionally done in C and similar languages. It introduces the notions of type, object, scope, and storage. It presents the fundamentals of computation: expressions, statements, and functions. Modularity – as supported by namespaces, source files, and exception handling – is also discussed: Chapter 6 Types and Declarations: Fundamental types, naming, scopes, initialization, sim- ple type deduction, object lifetimes, and type aliases

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ptg10564057 Section 1.1.2 Basic Facilities 5 Chapter 7 Pointers, Arrays, and References Chapter 8 Structures, Unions, and Enumerations Chapter 9 Statements: Declarations as statements, selection statements (if and switch), itera- tion statements (for, while, and do), goto, and comments Chapter 10 Expressions: A desk calculator example, survey of operators, constant expres- sions, and implicit type conversion. Chapter 11 Select Operations: Logical operators, the conditional expression, increment and decrement, free store (new and delete), {}-lists, lambda expressions, and explicit type conversion (static_cast and const_cast) Chapter 12 Functions: Function declarations and definitions, inline functions, constexpr functions, argument passing, overloaded functions, pre- and postconditions, pointers to functions, and macros Chapter 13 Exception Handling: Styles of error handling, exception guarantees, resource management, enforcing invariants, throw and catch, a vector implementation Chapter 14 Namespaces: namespace, modularization and interface, composition using name- spaces Chapter 15 Source Files and Programs: Separate compilation, linkage, using header files, and program start and termination I assume that you are familiar with most of the programming concepts used in Part I. For example, I explain the C++ facilities for expressing recursion and iteration, but I do not go into technical details or spend much time explaining how these concepts are useful. The exception to this rule is exceptions. Many programmers lack experience with exceptions or got their experience from languages (such as Java) where resource management and exception han- dling are not integrated. Consequently, the chapter on exception handling (Chapter 13) presents the basic philosophy of C++ exception handling and resource management. It goes into some detail about strategy with a focus on the ‘‘Resource Acquisition Is Initialization’’ technique (RAII). 1.1.3 Abstraction Mechanisms Part III describes the C++ facilities supporting various forms of abstraction, including object-ori- ented and generic programming. The chapters fall into three rough categories: classes, class hierar- chies, and templates. The first four chapters concentrate of the classes themselves: Chapter 16 Classes: The notion of a user-defined type, a class, is the foundation of all C++ abstraction mechanisms. Chapter 17 Construction, Cleanup, Copy, and Move shows how a programmer can define the meaning of creation and initialization of objects of a class. Further, the meaning of copy, move, and destruction can be specified. Chapter 18 Operator Overloading presents the rules for giving meaning to operators for user-defined types with an emphasis on conventional arithmetic and logical oper- ators, such as +, ∗, and &. Chapter 19 Special Operators discusses the use of user-defined operator for non-arithmetic purposes, such as [] for subscripting, () for function objects, and −> for ‘‘smart pointers.’’